Using Chemistry to Unveil the Kinematics of Starless Cores: Complex Radial Motions in Barnard 68

We present observations of 13CO, C18O, HCO+, H13CO+, DCO+ and N2H+ line emission towards the Barnard 68 starless core. The line profiles are interpreted using a chemical network coupled with a radiative transfer code in order to reconstruct the radial velocity profile of the core. Our observations and modeling indicate the presence of complex radial motions, with the inward motions in the outer layers of the core but outward motions in the inner part, suggesting radial oscillations. The presence of such oscillation would imply that B68 is relatively old, typically one order of magnitude older than the age inferred from its chemical evolution and statistical core lifetimes. Our study demonstrates that chemistry can be used as a tool to constrain the radial velocity profiles of starless cores.Comment: 12 pages, 3 figures, to appear in the Astrophysical Journal Letter

Interstellar chemistry of nitrogen hydrides in dark clouds

The aim of the present work is to perform a comprehensive analysis of the interstellar chemistry of nitrogen, focussing on the gas-phase formation of the smallest polyatomic species and in particular nitrogen hydrides. We present a new chemical network in which the kinetic rates of critical reactions have been updated based on recent experimental and theoretical studies, including nuclear spin branching ratios. Our network thus treats the different spin symmetries of the nitrogen hydrides self-consistently together with the ortho and para forms of molecular hydrogen. This new network is used to model the time evolution of the chemical abundances in dark cloud conditions. The steady-state results are analysed, with special emphasis on the influence of the overall amounts of carbon, oxygen, and sulphur. Our calculations are also compared with Herschel/HIFI observations of NH, NH$_2$, and NH$_3$ detected towards the external envelope of the protostar IRAS 16293-2422. The observed abundances and abundance ratios are reproduced for a C/O gas-phase elemental abundance ratio of $\sim0.8$, provided that the sulphur abundance is depleted by a factor larger than 2. The ortho-to-para ratio of H$_2$ in these models is $\sim10^{-3}$. Our models also provide predictions for the ortho-to-para ratios of NH$_2$ and NH$_3$ of $\sim2.3$ and $\sim0.7$ respectively. We conclude that the abundances of nitrogen hydrides in dark cloud conditions are consistent with the gas-phase synthesis predicted with our new chemical network.Comment: Accepted for publication in Astronomy & Astrophysics; 22 pages (9 in Appendix), 7 figures (2 in Appendix), 6 tables (3 in Appendix

Nitrogen hydrides and the H2 ortho-to-para ratio in dark clouds.

Accepted for publication in A&A (Astronomy and Astrophysics)Nitrogen bearing species are common tracers of the physical conditions in a wide variety of objects, and most remarkably in dark clouds. The reservoir of gaseous nitrogen is expected to be atomic or molecular, but none of the two species are observable in the dark gas. Their abundances therefore derive indirectly from those of N-bearing species through chemical modelling. The recent years have accumulated data which stress our incomplete understanding of the nitrogen chemistry in dark cloud conditions. To tackle this problem of the nitrogen chemistry in cold gas, we have revised the formation of nitrogen hydrides, which is initiated by the key reaction \ce{N+ + H2 -> NH+ + H}. We propose a new rate for this reaction which depends on the ortho-to-para ratio of H2. This new rate allows to reproduce the abundance ratios of the three nitrogen hydrides, NH, \ce{NH2}, and \ce{NH3}, observed towards IRAS16293-2422, provided that the channel leading to NH from the dissociative recombination of \ce{N2H+} is not closed at low temperature. The ortho-to-para ratio of H2 is constrained to O/P=$10^{-3}$ by the abundance ratio NH:NH2, which provides a new method to measure O/P. This work stresses the need for reaction rates at the low temperatures of dark clouds, and for branching ratios of critical dissociative recombination reactions

Spitzer spectral line mapping of protostellar outflows: I. Basic data and outflow energetics

We report the results of spectroscopic mapping observations carried out toward protostellar outflows in the BHR71, L1157, L1448, NGC 2071, and VLA 1623 molecular regions using the Infrared Spectrograph (IRS) of the Spitzer Space Telescope. These observations, covering the 5.2 - 37 micron spectral region, provide detailed maps of the 8 lowest pure rotational lines of molecular hydrogen and of the [SI] 25.25 micron and [FeII] 26.0 micron fine structure lines. The molecular hydrogen lines, believed to account for a large fraction of the radiative cooling from warm molecular gas that has been heated by a non-dissociative shock, allow the energetics of the outflows to be elucidated. Within the regions mapped towards these 5 outflow sources, total H2 luminosities ranging from 0.02 to 0.75 L(solar) were inferred for the sum of the 8 lowest pure rotational transitions. By contrast, the much weaker [FeII] 26.0 micron fine structure transition traces faster, dissociative shocks; here, only a small fraction of the fast shock luminosity emerges as line radiation that can be detected with Spitzer/IRS.Comment: 38 pages including 17 figures. Accepted for publication in Ap

Small-scale properties of Class 0 protostars from the CALYPSO IRAM-PdBI survey

Because the formation of protostars is believed to be closely tied to the angular momentum problem of star formation, characterizing the properties of the youngest disks around Class 0 objects is crucial. However, not much is known on the structure of the youngest protostellar envelopes, on the small scales at which disks and multiple systems are observed around more evolved YSOs, due to a lack of comprehensive high angular resolution observations (probing 50 au, disk structures are not observed in most Class 0 protostars from our sample, which can be described by various envelope models reproducing satisfactorily the intensity distribution of the dust emission at all scales from 50 au to 5000 au

Complex Structure in Class 0 Protostellar Envelopes III: Velocity Gradients in Non-Axisymmetric Envelopes, Infall or Rotation?

We present an interferometric kinematic study of morphologically complex protostellar envelopes based on observations of the dense gas tracers N2H+ and NH3. The strong asymmetric nature of most envelopes in our sample leads us to question the common interpretation of velocity gradients as rotation, given the possibility of projection effects in the observed velocities. Several "idealized" sources with well-ordered velocity fields and envelope structures are now analyzed in more detail. We compare the interferometric data to position-velocity diagrams of kinematic models for spherical rotating collapse and filamentary rotating collapse. For this purpose, we developed a filamentary parametrization of the rotating collapse model to explore the effects of geometric projection on the observed velocity structures. We find that most envelopes in our sample have PV structures that can be reproduced by an infalling filamentary envelope projected at different angles within the plane of the sky. The infalling filament produces velocity shifts across the envelope that can mimic rotation, especially when viewed at single-dish resolutions and the axisymmetric rotating collapse model does not uniquely describe any dataset. Furthermore, if the velocities are assumed to reflect rotation, then the inferred centrifugal radii are quite large in most cases, indicating significant fragmentation potential or more likely another component to the line-center velocity. We conclude that ordered velocity gradients cannot be interpreted as rotation alone when envelopes are non-axisymmetric and that projected infall velocities likely dominate the velocity field on scales larger than 1000 AU.Comment: 37 pages, 15 Figures, 2 Tables, Accepted to Ap

Complex Structure in Class 0 Protostellar Envelopes II: Kinematic Structure from Single-Dish and Interferometric Molecular Line Mapping

We present a study of dense molecular gas kinematics in seventeen nearby protostellar systems using single-dish and interferometric molecular line observations. The non-axisymmetric envelopes around a sample of Class 0/I protostars were mapped in the N2H+ (J=1-0) tracer with the IRAM 30m, CARMA and PdBI as well as NH3 (1,1) with the VLA. The molecular line emission is used to construct line-center velocity and linewidth maps for all sources to examine the kinematic structure in the envelopes on spatial scales from 0.1 pc to ~1000 AU. The direction of the large-scale velocity gradients from single-dish mapping is within 45 degrees of normal to the outflow axis in more than half the sample. Furthermore, the velocity gradients are often quite substantial, the average being ~2.3 km\s\pc. The interferometric data often reveal small-scale velocity structure, departing from the more gradual large-scale velocity gradients. In some cases, this likely indicates accelerating infall and/or rotational spin-up in the inner envelope; the median velocity gradient from the interferometric data is ~10.7 km/s/pc. In two systems, we detect high-velocity HCO+ (J=1-0) emission inside the highest-velocity \nthp\ emission. This enables us to study the infall and rotation close to the disk and estimate the central object masses. The velocity fields observed on large and small-scales are more complex than would be expected from rotation alone, suggesting that complex envelope structure enables other dynamical processes (i.e. infall) to affect the velocity field.Comment: 85 Pages, 31 Figures, 11 Tables, Accepted to ApJ

Spitzer mapping of molecular hydrogen pure rotational lines in NGC 1333: A detailed study of feedback in star formation

We present mid-infrared spectral maps of the NGC 1333 star forming region, obtained with the the Infrared Spectrometer on board the Spitzer Space Telescope. Eight pure H2 rotational lines, from S (0) to S (7), are detected and mapped. The H2 emission appears to be associated with the warm gas shocked by the multiple outflows present in the region. A comparison between the observed intensities and the predictions of detailed shock models indicates that the emission arises in both slow (12 - 24 km/s) and fast (36 - 53 km/s) C-type shocks with an initial ortho-to-para ratio of ~ 1. The present H2 ortho-to-para ratio exhibits a large degree of spatial variations. In the post-shocked gas, it is usually about 2, i.e. close to the equilibrium value (~ 3). However, around at least two outflows, we observe a region with a much lower (~ 0.5) ortho-to-para ratio. This region probably corresponds to gas which has been heated-up recently by the passage of a shock front, but whose ortho-to-para has not reached equilibrium yet. This, together with the low initial ortho-to-para ratio needed to reproduce the observed emission, provide strong evidence that H2 is mostly in para form in cold molecular clouds. The H2 lines are found to contribute to 25 - 50% of the total outflow luminosity, and thus can be used to ascertain the importance of star formation feedback on the natal cloud. From these lines, we determine the outflow mass loss rate and, indirectly, the stellar infall rate, the outflow momentum and the kinetic energy injected into the cloud over the embedded phase. The latter is found to exceed the binding energy of individual cores, suggesting that outflows could be the main mechanism for core disruption.Comment: Accepted for publication in the Astrophysical Journa

Structure physico-chimique des proto-étoiles de faible masse

Jury: Robert Bazer-Bachi (Président), Emmanuel Caux (Directeur de thèse), Cecilia Ceccarelli (Directrice de thèse), Peter Schilke (Rapporteur), Guillaume Pineau des Forêts (Rapporteur), Thierry Montmerle (Examinateur), Alexander Tielens (Rapporteur).Stars like our sun form by the gravitational collapse of fragments of molecular clouds. During the first stage of its formation (the so called Class 0), the star is deeply embedded in a gas and dust enveloppe, and it is only visible at infrared to millimeter wavelengths. As it evolves, the star progressively disperses this envelope. A protostellar disk remains, which may eventually form planets. In this thesis, I study the physical and chemical structure of low mass protostars. This study is based on ISO observations of water lines, and JCMT and IRAM telescopes observations of formaldehyde lines. In a first part, I study the water lines emission of the protostar NGC1333-IRAS4, which has been observed by ISO-LWS. Using a detailed model of the thermal emission of the protostar, I constrain the density and temperature profile in the envelope, which in turn constrain the central mass and the accretion rate. I also constrain the water abundance inside the envelope, and I show that this abundance is ten times higher in the inner parts of the envelope than in the outer parts. In this inner region, grain mantles evaporate, injecting large amount of water in the gaseous phase. Second, I develop a model of the formaldehyde emission, a molecule which is also abundant in grain mantles, and show that lines of this molecule can also be used to determine the physical and chemical structure of the envelope. Finally, I report a survey of formaldehyde emission of ten low mass Class 0 protostars, obtained at IRAM and JCMT. The comparison between the model predictions and the observations allows me to show that in all the observed protostars but one, formaldehyde is between two and three orders of magnitude more abundant than in the outer envelope. This shows that, like water, formaldehyde is evaporated from grain mantles and that, therefore, all the observed low mass protostars harbor hot cores, where chemistry is very likely influenced, if not dominated, by the evaporation of grain mantles.Les étoiles telles que notre soleil se forment par l'effondrement gravitationnel de fragments de nuages moléculaires. Pendant les premiers instants de sa formation (ce qu'on appelle la Classe 0), l'étoile est profondément enfouie dans une enveloppe de gaz et de poussières et est seulement visible aux longueurs d'onde infrarouge et millimétrique. Au fur et à mesure de son évolution, l'étoile disperse progressivement cette enveloppe. Un disque résiduel reste autour de l'étoile nouvellement née, qui pourra lui-même donner naissance à un système planétaire. Dans cette thèse, j'étudie la structure physico-chimique des proto-étoiles de faible masse. Cette étude est basée sur des observations du satellite ISO des raies de l'eau, ainsi que des observations avec les télescopes JCMT et IRAM du formaldéhyde. Dans un premier temps, j'étudie l'émission des raies de l'eau proto-étoile NGC1333-IRAS4 observés par ISO-LWS. A l'aide d'un modèle détaillé de l'émission de la proto-étoile, je détermine la structure en densité et température de l'enveloppe, ce qui permet de contraindre la masse centrale et le taux d'accrétion. Je détermine également l'abondance de l'eau dans l'enveloppe, et montre que cette abondance est dix fois plus importante dans la partie interne de l'enveloppe que dans la partie externe. Dans cette région, le manteau des grains s'évapore en injectant de grandes quantité d'eau en phase gazeuse. Dans un second temps, je développe un modèle d'émission d'une autre molécule abondante dans le manteau des grains, le formaldéhyde, et je montre que des transitions de cette molécule peuvent également être utilisées pour déterminer les conditions physico-chimiques dans l'enveloppe. Enfin, je présente un relevé de l'émission du formaldéhyde de dix proto-étoiles de classe 0, obtenu avec l'IRAM et le JCMT. En comparant les prédictions de ce modèle et les observations, je montre que dans toutes les proto-étoiles observées, à l'exception d'une seule, le formaldéhyde est également évaporé du manteau des grains, et est entre deux et trois ordres de grandeur plus abondant que dans la partie externe de l'enveloppe. Ceci montre que toutes les proto-étoiles de faible masse observées possèdent un coeur chaud, où la chimie est probablement très influencée, sinon dominée par l'évaporation du manteau des grains

Astrochem

Astrochem is a code to compute the abundances of chemical species in the interstellar medium, as function of time. It is designed to study the chemistry in a variety of astronomical objects, including diffuse clouds, dense clouds, photodissociation regions, prestellar cores, protostars, and protostellar disks. Astrochem reads a network of chemical reactions from a text file, builds up a system of kinetic rates equations, and solve it using a state-of-the-art stiff ordinary differential equation (ODE) solver. The Jacobian matrix of the system is computed implicitly, so the resolution of the system is extremely fast: large networks containing several thousands of reactions are usually solved in a few seconds. A variety of gas phase process are considered, as well as simple gas-grain interactions, such as the freeze-out and the desorption via several mechanisms (thermal desorption, cosmic-ray desorption and photo-desorption). The computed abundances are written in a HDF5 file, and can be plotted in different ways with the tools provided with Astrochem. Chemical reactions and their rates are written in a format which is meant to be easy to read and to edit. A tool to convert the chemical networks from the OSU and KIDA databases into this format is also provided